Precision Teaching for Maritime Education

So? What's the problem?

We want to teach efficiently. We want our students to learn well, to learn quickly, to retain that knowledge, and to be able to apply it. That's important for all students, of all abilities.

Perhaps there are ways to teach we haven't yet tried.

I'd like to introduce you to some teaching methods of which you may not be aware. Primarily I want to talk about something called "Precision Teaching" -- something I've been experimenting a lot with lately. Precision Teaching is a way to increase -- and measure -- students' fluencies (being correct and fast) in any subject. I will also mention a couple of other things I think show great promise, although I haven't had a chance to do much with them yet. These can help you with all students, of all levels, although mostly I've tried them with students who have problems. (You'll find much of the work with Precision Teaching has been done with people who really need extra help -- not surprising, since the need there is great -- but the techniques work with all people. I'd like to deal comprehensively with these subjects, but I can't -- I'm not an expert, and there isn't room here. But I hope to get you interested, and you will find many resources at the bottom of this, and I encourage you to make those contacts.

We do have a special problem with many of the students whom we've recently admitted. There were a few years where public-school teachers were told students need not learn multiplication nor addition tables (they were given calculators). Consequently, they have no fluency with arithmetic.

Does that matter? Since calculators are inexpensive now, why "drill and kill" the students?

The answer lies in the feeling students have for numbers. Students who have worked but little with numbers see a "6" as a "6". Students who have learned their addition tables, then addition of sequences, then multiplication, see a "6" as a 6, as 5 + 1, as 4 + 2, as 3 + 3, and as 6 x 1 and 3 x 2 -- quite possibly without even realizing it!

But when it becomes time to factor, for example, there is a definite difference in students. Some will immediately see the answer, others will not.

Let's suppose we want to teach factoring. OK -- we'll say, "Factoring is finding two things that, when multiplied together, give us the thing we started with."

Fine. Now students know what factoring is. They do, too -- but many can't do it. Some, indeed will look at an expression such as this:

...and see the answer. Others will not -- and they'll have no idea how the others ever came up with the answer.

But suppose the ones who did find the answer saw the numbers as possibilities, like this:

And realized the 3--2 combination showed up twice:

We could give the students who have problems with this countless factoring examples to do, but their progress would be slow, because the problem is not that they don't know factoring, but that they don't know numbers!

Similarly, many students today don't know reading or spelling well, not just arithmetic. What can be done?

Let's take a look at what happened in a test of Precision Teaching at the Sacajawea Elementary School (the "pilot") in Great Falls, Montana, in 1976-80. Only 20 minutes were added to the school day, and that used for Precision Teaching. (The graphs are not "fair" in that the averages of the other schools in the district do not include their learning-disabled students -- the results for the Sacawagea School do. (In fact, the students in the Pilot school labelled "special needs" scored higher than the traditionally-educated students in the rest of the district!) Let's look at some of the results:

What does Precision Teaching do? It increases fluency.

Fluency

Fluency means being able to do things both correctly and quickly. Traditional teaching methods consider only being correct -- not being fast.

Why do we care about fluency? Because greater fluency has been shown to be correlated to three things:

1. Greater retention of that knowledge.
2. Greater resistance to stresses when using that learning.
3. Greater ability to apply their knowledge.

"Greater retention" means students will not forget what they've learned, even over long periods of time. "Greater resistance to stress" means they aren't going to forget their knowledge during the stress of a test -- or later, on the job. And "Greater ability to apply their knowledge" means they will be able to apply their knowledge even to situations different than in their training.

Although fluency seems a rare topic in most educational communities, it's not in real life -- you want an interpreter who's fluent in languages, so you don't waste time nor get incorrect information in translation. You want a surgeon who's correct in his knowledge of anatomy -- and fast in his ability to clamp off a bleeding artery, if necessary. Firefighters are routinely tested to ensure they can don their turnout clothes, check their tank and regulator, don their mask and attach the hose, all in two minutes and five seconds. Would it make a difference if it took a minute longer? Probably not -- but this test ensures they will not forget how to do it, they can do it under a great deal of stress -- and they probably can figure out how to use unfamiliar equipment if necessary. Wildland fire fighters must be able to deploy their aluminum-foil shelters in twenty seconds -- and there a few seconds could make a great deal of difference -- and if not correctly done, leakage of the over-two-thousand degree air in a forest fire would surely kill.

Great fluency also brings with it automaticity. If you are an experienced driver and something falls off of a truck you are following, you will -- hopefully! -- steer around the object. You must know how to steer the car, remembering that the steering wheel is the correct control, remembering which way to turn the steering wheel, turning it the right amount -- but you will do all of this without consciously thinking about what you have to do.

Measuring Fluency

How do we measure fluency? Since we are looking for fluent behaviors, we need to look to B.F. Skinner's work with behavior. He graphed the logarithm of the frequency of a behavior. Why?

It turns out almost everything in the world is, by nature, exponential -- from the growth of your bank account (and, unfortunately, the growing effect of inflation), to the growth of a population of fish, to the normal distribution used in statistics. And our bodies are constructed to handle the huge range presented by exponential data by taking the logarithm of the data (an inverse-function filter, as math people would say). For instance, in music the octaves seem orderly spaced, an equal amount apart. But they are not -- each octave is double the frequency of the preceding one. They only seem equally spaced because of our natural, biological, logarithmic filter. All of our natural senses use a logarithmic filter. (Physiologists and neurologists call this the "Meyer-Fechner Rule".)

Here's an example: Suppose I present you with two cards; a black one that reflects 0% of the light that falls on it and a white one that reflects 100% of the light that falls on that one, and ask you to choose a card one-half way in tone between the two.

Most people would pick a gray like this one:

If the black reflects 0% and the white 100%, what will the gray reflect?

But 18% is surprising! Why is that? It's because, again, our senses are logarithmic. Let's show the (exponential) graph of what's happening:

More importantly, notice that if you use your senses to get the information about the cards directly (by looking at them), you get one impression (equal spacing); but if you get the data indirectly (by being given the numbers), your senses have no chance to take the logarithms, and your impression will be decidedly different (0 -- 18 -- 100 seems like two of the cards must be very dark).

The Standard Chart

Now, we can use computers, calculators, and such to calculate the logarithm of the results, but there's an easier way: use graph paper with logarithmic spacing. Here's an example of that (shown smaller than normal; the real chart is about twice the size, depending upon your monitor):

This is called the Standard Celeration Chart. ("Celeration" as in Acceleration and Deceleration.) It was developed by Ogden Lindsley, one of B.F. Skinner's graduate students and the inventor of Precision Teaching -- which is what we want to explore here.

Note the scale across the bottom. It represents the days while the teaching is going on. The scale is uniform -- the distance between 1 and 2 is the same as the distance between 3 and 4, which is the same as the distance between 9 and 10 -- or the distance between 98 and 99, for that matter.

But the axis going up the graph is logarithmic -- the distance between 9 and 10 is a lot smaller than the distance between 4 and 5 -- which is a lot smaller than the distance between 1 and 2. And the next seat of scales seem to have the same pattern -- but represent the values between 10 and 100, and the next cycle between 100 and 1,000, etc. Thus, just plotting the count-per-minute on the vertical axis automatically places that value in a logarithmic relationship with the other values -- you don't even have to know what a logarithm is! (First-graders have been easily taught to use this chart.)

Note the rosette scale in the lower left -- it shows the acceleration (rate of increase in behaviors-per-minute) or deceleration (rate of loss of behaviors-per-minute). Of course, you'd like acceleration of correct answers-per-minute and deceleration of errors-per-minute. The standard chart is set up so that a line sloping from the bottom left chart corner to the right top of the chart represents an acceleration of 2x per week -- an often attained goal. (Think how nice it would be if you could put some money in a bank and get 200% interest, compounded weekly! -- that would be the equivalent to the growth of fluency here.) The rosette shows other celerations.

One strange thing about the Standard Chart is the inclusion of a zero line. Mathematically, there can be no zero on a logarithmic chart. But when an undesirable behavior -- such as a math error -- seems to be extinguished, many people enjoy recording it as zero, so a zero line was added.

Now let's look at a real chart, used with a student who not only has learning problems, but serious behavioral problems as well: (You can see this graph, and others as well, on the Chart Share section of www.learningincentive.com. This was submitted by Stu Harder.)

The bottom row of data concerns his social behavior, which need not concern us, except I thought you might like to see the chart can be used for such things.

The upper marks represent work on his math ability. Apparently, he is being timed on the number of problems he can do in 2 minutes. The number right/minute at each timing will be plotted with dots, errors plotted with x's.

(Note the standard unit for behaviors is behaviors-per-minute. You can measure that by counting the number done in one minute, or the number done in 2 minutes divide by two, or the number done in 30 seconds times two, or the number done in any time period you wish, divided by the time taken.)

As more and more timings are taken, the student's number of corrects increases and the number of errors decreases. He has a celeration of correct answers of 1.3x, and a deceleration of errors of 1.5x. On the second level of whatever it is he's studying, his deceleration of errors is 1.3x, but -- worse -- his acceleration of corrects is almost flat.

Generally speaking, you push for the highest rate of corrects you can, and the number of errors goes down by itself. That's not always the case, though. There are a number of possibilities, and they can help you figure out what's wrong. Let's look at some. (These are a few of the examples from Dr. John Eshleman's web site, http://members.aol.com/standardcharter/learnpix.html)

That's is the pattern you'd like to see! The correct rate is going up nicely, and errors are going down rapidly. Just great!

Congratulations! The student reached the aimed-for fluency. Time to move to the next instructional level.

It's not good if you have a "flat line" in the hospital. This isn't good, either -- the student isn't making any progress. They're wasting time. You'd better find out what's the matter.

Look at this one! That's is what most schooling does! Sure, he's making less errors -- but his fluency is not improving!

What would he get from fluency? Again, improving fluency results in --

1. Greater retention of knowledge.
2. Greater resistance to stresses when using learning.
3. Greater ability to apply his knowledge.

This is a student learning to read at Ben Bronz Academy in Hartford, CT. Note how rapidly his fluency goes up and his errors go down. Just as soon as his fluency reaches the aim point, he knows enough to go to the next lesson. Therefore, each student in the room is getting instruction tailored to precisely his needs -- every student in the room may be working on a different lesson. Note this is not plotted on the usual chart -- in fact, this student is using software produced by Ben Bronz Academy.

The following is the chart (provided by John Wilson to the Ben Bronz site) of an autistic student who wanted to help out at his high school. He learned to clean overhead projectors. Note how rapidly he came up to fluency and his errors dropped away. Also note how -- probably because he was fluent -- he retained his skills over summer vacation. Finally, he is tested with a "probe" -- that is, he's tested without his usual check sheet -- and he's fluent enough he doesn't need it.

This is an example of how complicated tasks can be timed and the student's growth of fluency charted, even though they take much more than one minute to accomplish. It is the rate that's important, no matter how long the timing period.

Practice Sheets

Students can use flash cards, practice sheets -- even be timed on the real thing, like "flashlight drills" in an engine room. Below is the kind of practice sheet a beginning math student -- or one who hasn't yet learned his arithmetic skills, even if in college -- might work on to become fluent in addition.

It may be hard to believe -- but true -- there are students who enter college only able to do 12 of these a minute -- in other words, it can take some students 5 seconds to add three and five!

Precision Teaching is by no means limited to working with lower grades, or students who have problems that have to be remediated. For example, all pre-calculus students would benefit from working on the intersection points of equations:

All of these sheets can be printed on standard US-letter-sized paper. Every minute, the server generates new sheets, using randomly-chosen numbers -- and the correct answers, too, so they can be easily corrected. They can be obtained from the seahorse.mma.edu server.

Simply follow the links to the practice sheets you want, then press your browser's print button.

You will also wish to try flash cards, computer programs, and actually timing students doing hands-on exercises, depending on what you are teaching.

You can time with any watch with a second-hand. However, a timer with large numbers allows you to watch what is going on at the same time. The clipboard shown has a timer built in -- you can time yourself as you practice.

More resources will be listed later on.

Other Teaching Methods

There are other teaching methods of which you may not be aware.

Direct Instruction

In the decades following 1967, a federally-funded research project followed the progress of school children all through their school years, watching which teaching methods were the best. One method stood out above all the rest: Siegfried Engelmann's Direct Instruction. Why is this method unheard of in most schools?

And, by the way, Direct Instruction teamed with Precision Teaching results in a dynamite combination!

Here are some links, if you wish to know more:

An article about Project Follow through

A page from Athabasca University's course

Siegfried Engelmann's own site

TAG Teaching

Karen Pryor learned free operant conditioning, using a "bridge", in the world of training sea mammals -- then revolutionized pet training by writing books and producing videos about "clicker training". The method works incredibly well on all animals, including homo sapiens. "TAG" teaching is using these methods to help people learn skills better. Karen says, "TAGteach is not just an accelerated way to teach and learn. It also has a huge positive impact on the lives of both the teacher/coach and the student/athlete. "Imagine a gym without the sound of the coach yelling. Imagine making more progress overcoming physical disabilities in three months than in the previous three years. Imagine taking five strokes off your golf game after just one or two TAG sessions. That's the level of performance increase we are talking about."

What could it do for lifeboat drills and the like, do you suppose?

Here's the TAGteach website.

Resources

A great resource is the Celeration Society and its web site. You will find people who are experienced, extremely talented -- and exceptionally open and eager to help. What you are reading now would not be possible without their help.

In fact, this might be a good place to tell you my personal history of learning these things. Some years back, I was intrigued with the idea of "clicker training" -- using free operant conditioning to train my dog. It worked incredibly well, and I (and the dog) attended a couple of Gary Wilkes' seminars. In talking to Gary at a break, I asked if anything similar could train people so well. (In fact clicker training can be used with humans as with all species -- see "TAGteaching".) Gary then put on a demonstration in the class of something he had learned from T.V. Joe Layng -- Wow! When I got home I called Layng, learned what had been done was called Precision Teaching and how to contact others who used it, leading to my contact with the Celeration Society. Joe also advised to start using the Whimbey texts for teaching problem solving (which I still do -- it's like raising your students' IQs). I went further with animal training, even attending the Baileys' "Chicken Camp", where my training partner just happened to be Karen Pryor -- the woman who brought clicker training out of the marine mammal arena to the general public (and was thus indirectly responsible for me going to Gary Wilkes, and learning about Precision Teaching in the first place -- unexpected connections keep popping up!).

The discoverer of Precision Training, Ogden Lindsley, felt the proper way to spread this knowledge was through one person teaching another. The trainer is called a "Chart Parent". Many feel now the information needs to get out faster, through books, courses, etc. There are such courses; at the Pennsylvania State University, Athabaska University, University of Washington, etc. Many of the leading practitioners got their start while teaching at Morningside Academy with Kent Johnson, T.V. Joe Layng, and Joanne Robbins. But not all can afford to take the time off to work there, and personal help is important.

My Chart Parent is Richard McManus, then of Cambridge, now President of The Fluency Factory in Hingham, Massachusetts. He came up to Maine and spent a couple of days with me and my classes -- at no cost. (So, you see, I have an obligation to pass this knowledge on.)

Others on the SC List have also been incredibly helpful. John Eshleman's writings there should always be read, and his website contains much of the information you must have. Owen White spent some time with me on the phone a while back. Hank Pennypacker's Handbook of the Standard Celeration Chart is an essential resource. And conversations with Dennis Edinger were always educational.

I was privileged to meet many of the luminaries on the list at the ABA meeting in Toronto a couple of years back. We met Michael Maloney there -- a man who can, in a few minutes, convince you of the efficacy of (and leave you in open-mouthed wonder of) Direct Instruction. His web site has free reading diagnostics -- remember that when you have a student who cannot read well. His texts are also often used by home-schoolers.

One friendship my wife and I treasure is with Abigail Calkin, a consultant good enough she can run her globe-hopping consultancy out of a tiny town in Alaska. She is also an accomplished author, having several novels and poetry published. Presently, she's working on a non-fiction book about a maritime disaster in Alaska -- so, once again, unexpected connections pop up. She has several times helped me with integrating PT into my various classroom situations.

When my students complain, at first seeing the practice sheets, that nobody could do one-digit additions at more than twenty per minute, I often remember visiting Ben Bronz Academy in Hartford, where learning-disabled students were performing at well over a hundred. The most remarkable thing, though, was how happy and focused they were.

We brought Claudia McDade up to Maine Maritime Academy a couple of years back to talk to the faculty. Claudia runs a very successful operation at Jacksonville State University in Alabama. When students cannot keep up with normal scholastic progress, they attend Claudia's help service, which gets them up to standards. She uses PT as one of her tools.

In fact there are too many to name all who have helped me -- and helped others. This is an extraordinarily generous group of people.

(And a special thanks to the people who edited and checked this. Alphabetically, Abigail Calkin, Regina Claypool-Frey, Janet Dolan, John Eshleman, and others.)

So you must contact the Society and get on the email list at http://www.celeration.org

Below you will find many resources to help you along. But don't forget to ask others -- by working together, we can start using this new (to us) world of under-utilized tools.

Websites

PRECISION TEACHING INFO, RESOURCES AND SERVICES

SCSListserv archives
http://lists.psu.edu/archives/sclistserv.html

Precision Teaching Module/Athabasca University
http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/387/OpenModules/Lindsley/

John W. Eshleman
Definitions, types of celerations, learning pictures, data shares, resources, special topics, links Standard Celeration Chart Topics
http://members.aol.com/standardcharter/

Blog on the Standard Celeration chart
Standard Celeration Charting Blog
http://jweshleman.wordpress.com/tag/general/ Instructional systems and designs, learning pictures, glossary, references, links Instructional Systems http://members.aol.com/JohnEshleman/index.html

The Fluency Project, Inc. / Fluency.org
PT papers and manuscripts
http://www.fluency.org/

Richard (Rick) Kubina
The Pennsylvania State University
About PT, practice sheets, performance standards, publications and presentations. Precision Teaching and Standard Celeration Charting
http://www.precisionteachingresource.net/

Jesus Rosales Ruiz
University of North Texas
Collaborative chartshare / in progress Chartshare.net
http://www.chartshare.net/

Red Sarna
Maine Maritime Academy
Precision Teaching info, links and practice sheets
http://seahorse.mma.edu/%7Esarna/

schtuff—Aimchart & Precision Teaching Wiki
About Precision Teaching
http://aimchart.schtuff.com/about_precision_teaching

John Shewmaker 12/26—may be down temporarily
Precision Teaching and Celeration
http://www.celeration.net/

teonor.com
Precision Teaching papers (MSWord.doc format)
http://www.teonor.com/ptdocs/

Owen R. White
University of Washington
EDSPE 510 Classroom Measurement and Management
http://courses.washington.edu/edspe510/510_Overview.htm

BehaviorDevelopmentSolutions
Online sales--books and timers
http://behaviordevelopmentsolutions.com/

Behavior Research Co.
THE source for Standard Celeration Charts, books, charts, other materials—online orders only
http://www.behaviorresearchcompany.com/

Celeration Technologies/Thinkfast Software
Fluency building software
http://members.shaw.ca/celerationtechnologies/index.html

Chart EXT
charting and data analysis software
http://www.chartext.com/Index.asp

Clickertraining.com
Karen Pryor
Clicker gear—i-click, box clickers, books, TAG teaching
http://www.clickertraining.com/store

CyberSlate®
Online tutoring with charting
http://www.cyberslate.com/

Different Roads to Learning
Many products for autism/special needs, but also a large selection of timers and counters
http://www.difflearn.com/default.asp

Great Leaps
math, reading curriculum materials
http://www.greatleaps.com/default.asp

Haughton Learning Center
reading, writing, math curriculum materials
http://www.haughtonlearningcenter.com/

Headsprout™ Early Reading
Online phonics reading instruction
http://www.headsprout.com/

Morningside Press
Fluency supplements for core curriculum
http://www.morningsidepress.org/Merchant2/merchant.mvc

Practice Math Sheets
Red Sarna
Free online practice sheet generator
http://seahorse.mma.edu/%7Esarna/sprints.html

PracticeMill/Provalis Reasearch
PracticeMill instructional development program, also other statistical programs available.
http://www.provalisresearch.com/PracticeMill/PracticeMill.php

PracticeSheeter™ software
Zero Brothers
For info on products:
Steve Graf at [log in to unmask]
or
Jack Auman at [login to unmask]

Sopris West™ Educational Services
Search: “Skill Builders”
Curriculum, intervention and assessment materials
http://www.sopriswest.com/

TeachYourChildrenWell
Michael Maloney
Direct instruction and Precision Teaching curriculum materials, webcam tutoring, freebies
http://www.teachyourchildrenwell.ca/

TimeTimer
Visual and auditory timers
http://www.timetimer.com/index.php

AimStar Precision Learning Center
c/o Elayne Nickolaou, George Vinci
Bollingbrook, IL
630.972-1513

Binder-Riha Associates
c/o Carl Binder, Cynthia Riha
Bainbridge Island, WA
http://www.binder-riha.com/index.html

Calkin Learning Center
c/o Abigail B. Calkin
Gustavus, AK
http://www.abigailbcalkin.com/

Childrens Center for Developmental Enrichment / Oakstone Academy
Autism and related disabilities
Columbus, OH
http://www.ccde.org/about.html

Fabrizio/Moors Consulting
Autism and related disabilities
c/o Michael Fabrizio, Allison Moors
Seattle, WA
http://www.fabriziomoors.com/

Haugland Consulting
c/o Morten and Kristi Haugland
Columbus, OH
[log in to unmask]

Haughton Learning Center
c/o Elizabeth Haughton
Jackson, CA
http://www.haughtonlearningcenter.com/

Learning Acceleration Clinic (LAB)
c/o Michael Hixson
Psychological Training and Consultation Center
Central Michigan University
Mount Pleasant, MI
http://www.chsbs.cmich.edu/Clinical_Psychology/PTCCSpecialServices.htm

Morningside Academy
c/o Kent Johnson
Seattle, WA
http://www.morningsideacademy.org/

Saplings Model of Education (for children with autism)
c/o Ken Kerr, director
Co. Kildare, Ireland
http://www.saplings.org/index.html

Step by Step Learning Group
c/o Kevin Cauley
Contact for specific populations served
Georgetown, Ontario, Canada
http://www.sbslg.com/
http://www.sbslg.com/contactus.htm

Ben Bronz Academy/ The Learning Incentive, Inc.
c/o Ian Spence and Aileen Stans-Spence
West Hartford, CT
http://www.learningincentive.com/TLI_Intr.html

Headsprout™ Early Reading
Online phonics reading instruction
http://www.headsprout.com/

My Breakfast Reading Program /Free supplemental/
c/o Dick Briggs
Online:
http://mybreakfastreadingprogram.com/

QLC EDUCATIONAL SERVICES & QLC LEARNING CENTRE
c/o Michael Maloney
Belleville, Ontario,Canada
http://www.teachyourchildrenwell.ca/Home/mainpage.htm

Beal Street Academy/The Fluency Factory
c/o Richard McManus
Hingham MA
http://www.fluencyfactory.com/

Ben Bronz Academy/ The Learning Incentive, Inc.
c/o Ian Spence and Aileen Stans-Spence
West Hartford, CT
http://www.learningincentive.com/TLI_Intr.html

Cache Valley Learning Center
c/o Anne Desjardins
private school
Logan UT
http://www.cvlc-logan.org/index.php

Charter Day School / Roger Bacon Academy
c/o Mark Cramer, Baker Mitchell
Public charter school
Leland, NC
http://www.rogerbacon.net/

Douglass Developmental Disabilities Center/Rutgers
Autism and related disabilities /Special needs
New Brunswick, NJ
http://gsappweb.rutgers.edu/dddc/

Fort Fraser Elementary School/(Nechako Lakes' Precision Teaching School)
Public school
British Columbia, Canada
http://www.sd91.bc.ca/ff/index.html

Judge Rotenberg Center
Special needs including severe population
Canton, MA
http://www.judgerc.org/

Learning Centre for Autistic Children/The Red Door
Autism and related disabilities / Special needs
Blackrock, Co. Dublin., Ireland
http://www.lcac.ie/

Morningside Academy
c/o Kent Johnson
Seattle, WA
http://www.morningsideacademy.org/

Oakstone Academy / Childrens Center for Developmental Enrichment
private—Autism and typical
Columbus, OH
http://www.ccde.org/oakstone.html

Saplings Model of Education (for children with autism)
Autism and related disabilities / Special needs
Co. Kildare, Ireland
http://www.saplings.org/index.html

School Union #44, Maine
http://www.schoolunion44.org/
or
email will.burrow@schoolunion44.org

Step by Step Learning Group
c/o Kevin Cauley
Contact for specific populations served
Georgetown, Ontario, Canada
http://www.sbslg.com/ http://www.sbslg.com/contactus.htm

Center for Advanced Learning
c/o Kimberley Berens
Reno NV
http://www.thecenterforadvancedlearning.com/

Direct Tutoring
c/o Alexandra (Sacha) Luria-Smith
Portland OR
http://directtutoring.com/index.html

Dolan Learning Center
c/o Janet Dolan
18500 156th Av. NE
Woodinville, WA 98072
425.488-3587

Exeter Speech Language & Education Associates
Exeter, NH
http://www.eslea.homestead.com/

The Fluency Factory/Beal Street Academy
c/o Richard McManus
Hingham MA
http://www.fluencyfactory.com/

Haugland Learning Center
c/o Morten and Kristi Haugland
http://www.hauglandlearningcenter.com/default.htm

Haughton Learning Center
c/o Elizabeth Haughton
Jackson, CA http://www.haughtonlearningcenter.com/

Learning Acceleration Clinic (LAB)
c/o Michael Hixson
Psychological Training and Consultation Center
Central Michigan University
Mount Pleasant, MI
http://www.chsbs.cmich.edu/Clinical_Psychology/PTCCSpecialServices.htm

Precision Learning Centre
c/o Grant Coulson,
2311 Major Mackenzie Drive Maple, ON L6A 1P5
Tel: 905-832-0045
email: [log in to unmask]

QLC EDUCATIONAL SERVICES & QLC LEARNING CENTRE
c/o Michael Maloney
Belleville, Ontario,Canada
http://www.teachyourchildrenwell.ca/Home/mainpage.htm

Sources Learning Centre
8 2nd St W, Cornwall, ON, Canada
Phone: (613) 930-9206

TriArch Educational Services
Whitby, Cobourg, Peterborough, Scarborough, Toronto—Canada
http://www.triarch.ca/main.php

(Based on the list compiled by Regina Claypool-Frey, with input from members of the SCListserv: http://lists.psu.edu/archives/sclistserv.html 12/27/06)

Precision Teaching References

Note: The following list is not a complete list of Standard Chart or Precision Teaching references. Also, if you published or contributed a work not on the following list, but you believe it ought to be on the list, please post to the Standard Charting listserv and let us know. If you do, please include the complete reference citation in APA format, and say how the work is either a Standard Chart or a Precision Teaching contribution. That will expedite putting it on the list! This is a work in progress!

Original list compiled by John W. Eshleman, Ed.D and donated to www.celeration.org

Albrecht, P. (1981).  Using precision teaching techniques to encourage creative writing.  Journal of Precision Teaching, 2, No. 1, 18-21.

Albrecht, P. (1984). Summary of ten major school precision teaching programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

All, P. (1977). From get truckin' to jaws, students improve their learning picture. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Kansas.

Barrett, B.H. (1979).  Communitization and the measured message of normal behavior.  In R. York & E. Edgar (eds) Teaching the Severely Handicapped (Vol. 4). Columbus, OH: Special Press.

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Merbitz, C. T., Grip, J. C., King, R. B., Lim, A. C., Jozwiak, C., & Ji, W. (1990). Teaching pressure sore preventive behavior to persons with spinal cord injury: Effects of behavioral interventions on pressure relief behavior. In Meeting Program and Abstracts, Fourth Annual Conference of the American Association of Spinal Cord Injury Psychologists and Social Workers. Las Vegas, NV: AASCIPSW.

Merbitz, C. T., Grip, J. C., & Marqui, H. P. (1988). The RIC DADS (Data Analysis/Decision Support) System. In Proceedings of the International Conference of the Association for the Advancement of Rehabilitation Technology (pp. 168-169). Montreal: International Association for the Advancement of Rehabilitation Technology [renamed RESNA].

Merbitz, C. T., Grip, J. C., Marqui, H. P., Mroczek, K., Jozwiak, C., & Yousef, N. (1988). The RIC Precise Management of Data (PMD) System. In Proceedings of the International Conference of the Association for the Advancement of Rehabilitation Technology (pp. 166-167). Montreal: International Association for the Advancement of Rehabilitation Technology [renamed RESNA].

Merbitz, C. T., King, R. B., Marqui, H. P., Carley, D., Grip, J. C., & Mroczek, K. (1987). Technology for clinicians: mobile microcomputer for training pressure sore preventive behavior. In R. D. Steele & W. Gerrey (Eds.), Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Conference on Rehabilitation Technology, RESNA, the Association for the Advancement of Rehabilitation Technology (pp.333-335). San Jose, CA: RESNA Press.

Merbitz, C. T., Halper, A. S., Sasso, A. V., Mogil, S., Klein-Koonin, J., Bellaire, K., Yousef, N., Grip, J. C., & Mroczek, K. F. (1987). Technology for clinicians: measurement of functional communication of persons with aphasia. In R. D. Steele & W. Gerrey (Eds.), Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Conference on Rehabilitation Technology, RESNA, The Association for the Advancement of Rehabilitation Technology (pp.290-292). San Jose, CA: RESNA Press.

Merbitz, C. T., Grip, J. C., King, R. B., Marqui, H. P., & Mroczek, K. F. (1987). Computerized measurement and modification of wheelchair pressure relief behavior. In Abstracts of Papers, 153rd National Meeting, American Association for the Advancement of Science (p. 411). Chicago, IL: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Merbitz, C. T., King, R. B., & Bleiberg, J. (1983). Continuous direct recording of wheelchair pressure relief behaviors. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 64, 490 - 491.

Mercer, C.D., Mercer, A.R., & Evans, S. (1982). The use of frequency in establishing instructional aims. Journal of Precision Teaching, 3, 57-63.

Miller, J.E., & Calkin, A.B. (1980). Using precision teaching in a secondary science class.  Journal of Precision Teaching, 1, No. 2, 10-17.

Miller, T., & Merbitz, C.T. (1982). Hemianopsia rehabilitation. (Chart Sharing).  Journal of Precision Teaching, 3, No. 2, 43-45.

Neely, M.D. (1978). Six years of supervising a special education program by learning products. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

Neely, M. D. Camelot's first-grade reading pilot report of the performance & learning effects from three years of SBG's World of Reading with the '93 class enhanced by SRA's Readng Mastery, Fast Cycle I/II and Precision teaching. Journal of Precision Teaching, 1994, 11(2), 36-58.

Neely, M. D. Principal pride walls. Journal of Precision Teaching, 1986, 6(4), 84-85. Neely, M. D. Seven ways of describing reading--McGuffey's and six more. Journal of Precision Teaching, 1981, 2(3), 2-8 and 1982, 2(4), 2-10 and 3(1), 1-9.

Neely, M. D. Six years of supervising a special education program by learning products. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1979, 39, 6443A. (University Microfilms No. 79-10, 622).

Neely, M. D. Multiple Effects of Whole Language, Precision Teaching and Direct Instruction on first-grade story reading. Effective School Practices, 1995, 14(4).

Neely, M. D. & Lindsley, O. R. Phonetic, linguistic, and sight readers produce similar learning with exceptional children. Journal of Special Education, 1978, 12(4), 423- 441.

Neely, M. D., Street, C. & Pupils. Cindy Street and Her Second Graders Relate to Rapid Practice and Charts. Journal of Precision Teaaching, 1992, 10(1), 22-33.

Neufeld, K. (1978). What charted learning tells supervisors about reading performance levels. Doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas. [Dissertation Abstracts International, 1979, 39, 3959a (University Microfilms No. 78-24, 842).].

Neufeld, K., & Lindsley, O.R. (1980). Charting to compare children's learning at four different reading performance levels. Journal of Precision Teaching, 1, 9-17.

Noel, M. (1979). Charting and projecting the progress of women in the United States. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

Olander, C.P., Collins, D.L., McArthur, B.L., Watts, R.O., & McDade, C.E. (1986). Retention among college students: A comparison of traditional versus precision teaching. Journal of Precision Teaching, 6, No. 4, 80-82.

Olander, C. P., & Merbitz, C. T. (1980). Using technologies to teach: an A/V, PSI course with computer assisted testing. Educational Technology, 20(5), 50-52.

Oliva, C.M. (1981). A comparison of the accuracies of five future projection methods. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

Parsons, J.A. (1990). THINK FAST: A computer program to teach fluent verbal behavior about behavior. Paper presented in the symposium Behavior Principles in Computer Assisted Instruction (J.A. Parsons, chair), at the sixteenth annual meeting of the Association for Behavior Analysis, Nashville, TN, May.

Pennypacker, H.S.(1974). How I spent my Christmas vacation. In R. Ulrich, T. Stachnik, & J. Mabry (eds.) Control of Human Behavior, Vol. 3. New York: Scott Foresman.

Pennypacker, H.S. (1976). Measurement, accountability, and the economics of a complex instructional system. In E.A. Vargas & L. Fraley (Eds.) Proceedings of the Third National Conference on Behavior Research & Technology in Higher Education. Gainesville, FL: Society for Behavior Technology and Engineering, pp. 311-320.

Pennypacker, H.S. (1976). The role of direct measurement in the evolution of a complex educational system.  In E.A. Vargas & L. Fraley (Eds.) Proceedings of the Third National Conference on Behavior Research & Technology in Higher Education.  Gainesville, FL: Society for Behavior Technology and Engineering, pp. 259-266.

Pennypacker, H.S. (1994). A selectionist view of the future of behavior analysis in education. In R. Gardner, D.M. Sainato, J.O. Cooper, T.E. Heron, W.L. Heward, J.W. Eshleman, & T.A. Grossi (Eds.) Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction.  Pacific Grove, CA:  Brooks/Cole.  pp. 11-18.

Pennypacker, H.S., & Binder, C.V. (1992). Triage for American education. Administrative Radiology Journal, 11(1), 19-25.

Pennypacker, H.S., Heckler, J.B., & Pennypacker, S.F. (1977). The Personalized Learning Center: A university-wide system of personalized instruction.  In T.A. Brigham & A.C. Catania (eds.) Handbook of Applied Behavioral Research. New York: Irvington Press, pp. 591-617.

Pennypacker, H.S., Koenig, C.H., & Lindsley, O.R. (1972). Handbook of the standard behavior chart. Kansas City, KS: Precision Media.

Pollard, J. (1982). Celtic pride: A functional definition.  (Chart Sharing). Journal of Precision Teaching, 3, No. 2, 45,48.

Porter, K.L. (1985). Standard celeration chart summary of individual-percentage-interv recording studies from the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1968-1984. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

Potts, L., Eshleman, J.W., & Cooper, J.O. (1993). Ogden R. Lindsley and the historical development of precision teaching. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 177-189.

Rast, J., Johnston, J.M., Drum, C., & Conrin, J. (1981). The relation of food quantity to rumination behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 121-130.

Sepler, H.J. (1979). Charting and projecting medical, legal, and educational malpractice litigation decided in the U.S. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

Sexton, J., Merbitz, C. T., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1975). Accountability: Cost Efficiency and Effectiveness Measures in Behavioral College Teaching. In J. M. Johnston (Ed.) Behavior Research and Technology in Higher Education (pp. 463-473). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Co.

Shirley, M., & Pennypacker, H.S.  (1994). The effects of performance criteria on learning and retention of spelling words. Journal of Precision Teaching, 12, No. 1, 73-86.

Skinner, B.F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms. An experimental analysis. Acton, MA: Copley.

Skinner, B.F. (1953). Some contributions of an experimental analysis of behavior to psychology as a whole.  American Psychologist, 8, 69-79. (Reprinted in Skinner, B.F.  (1999).  Cumulative Record, Definitive Edition. Acton, MA: Copley, pp. 101 - 107).

Skinner, B.F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching.  Harvard Educational Review, 24, 86-97. (Republished in Skinner, B.F. (1999). Cumulative Record. Definitive Edition. Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group, pp. 179-191.)

Skinner, B.F. (1956). A case history in scientific method. American Psychologist, 11, 221-233.

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Skinner, B.F. (1957). The experimental analysis of behavior.  American Scientist, 45, 343-371. (Reprinted in Skinner, B.F.  (1999).  Cumulative Record, Definitive Edition. Acton, MA: Copley, pp. 132 - 164).

Skinner, B.F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science, 128, 969-977. (Republished in Skinner, B.F. (1999). Cumulative Record. Definitive Edition.  Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group, pp. 192-216.) 

Skinner, B.F. (1968). The technology of teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Solsten, K.P. (1980). Standard behavior chart instructional booklet. Unpublished document.

Spence, I. (1998). The role of knowledge of response as a positive reinforcer. In D. Cook (ed.) Behavior theory and computer-based teaching. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies. (pp. 19-37).

Standard Celeration Society. (1997). Standard Glossary and Charting Conventions. Journal of Precision Teaching and Celeration, 14, 55-57.

Starlin, A. (1971). Charting group and individual instruction  Teaching Exceptional Children, 3, 135-136.

Starlin, A. (1986). Survey of fifteen principals trained in precision teaching exploring their use of the standard celeration chart. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

Starlin, C.M. (1970). The use of daily recording as an aid in teaching oral reading.  Doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon. [Dissertation Abstracts International, 1971, 32, 812a (University Microfilms No. 71-16, 844).].

Starlin, C.M. (1971). The need for a standard and more precise means of educational measurement. In J.C. Morrey (ed.) Learning and behavior management in teacher training. Pocatello, ID: Idaho State University Press, pp. 100-139.

Starlin, C.M. (1971). Peers and precision. Teaching Exceptional Children, 3, 129-132; 137-140.

Stromberg, G. (1974). Pinpointing helps teens and self-destructive feelings. Special Education in Canada, 48 (3), 19.

Stromberg, E.N. (1981). Improving school climate using suggestion boxes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

Sweeney, W.J., Omness, C.K., Janusz, K.L., & Cooper, J.O. (1992). Adult literacy and precision teaching: Repeated readings and see/cover/write practice to improve reading and spelling. Journal of Precision Teaching, 9, No. 1. 6-19.

Tenenbaum, H., & Peterson, S.K. (1985). Celeration and ritalin. Journal of Precision Teaching, 6, No. 2, 38-45.

Vargas, J.S. (1972). Writing worthwhile behavioral objectives. New York: Harper & Row.

Vargas, J.S. (1977). Behavioral psychology for teachers. New York: Harper & Row.

West, R.P., Young, K.R., West, W.J., Johnson, J.I., & Freston, C.W. (1985). AC-CEL: An artificial intelligence system for student performance evaluation and instructional decision-making. Sarasota, FL: Precision Teaching Materials and Associates.

West, R.P., Young, K.R., & Spooner, F. (1990). Precision teaching, an introduction. Teaching Exceptional Children, Spring, 4-9.

White, O.R. (1971). A glossary of behavioral terminology. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

White, O.R. (1971). A pragmatic approach to the description of progress in the single case. A 1971 doctoral dissertation published by University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1975.

White, O.R. (1984). Aim*Star Wars [Setting AIMS that COMPETE]. Part 1. Journal of Precision Teaching, 5, No. 3, 55, 58-64.

White, O.R. (1985). Aim*Star Wars [Setting AIMS that COMPETE]. Parts 2 & 3. Journal of Precision Teaching, 5, No. 4, 86-96.

White, O.R. (1985). Aim*Star Wars [Setting AIMS that COMPETE]. Part 4. Journal of Precision Teaching, 6, No. 1, 7-14.

White, O.R. (1985). Aim*Star Wars [Setting AIMS that COMPETE]. Part 5. Journal of Precision Teaching, 6, No. 2, 30-35.

White, O.R. (1986). Precision teaching--precision learning.  Exceptional Children, 52, 522-534.

White, O.R., & Haring, N.G. (1976). Exceptional teaching. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Wolking, W. (1972). A primer of precision teaching. Gainesville, FL: Behavior Development Systems.

Wolking, W. (1972). Precision educational measurement: The direct and continuous measurement of pupil behavior: A self-instruction module.  Tallahassee, FL: Florida State Department of Education.

Wolking, W., Harris, C., Ferro, J., & Scott, J. (1990). Effects of text grade level on oral reading with mildly handicapped students. Journal of Precision Teaching, 7, No. 2., 59-68.

Young, K.R. (1972). Precision teaching 1: A course in basic procedure. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Printing Service.

Young, K.R., West, R.P., Howard, V.F., & Whitney, R. (1986). Acquisition, fluency training, generalization, and maintenance of dressing skills of two developmentally disabled children. Education and Treatment of Children, 9, 16-29.

Note, in making this list I sought (a) to include what I consider some representative works of the field of Precision Teaching, (b) to include mainly published work though I added in a few presentations that seem to me to warrant mention, (c) and concentrated primarily on work that deals with frequency, celeration, standard charts, or basics of precision teaching. The main idea was to list items that, for the most part, interested users would have a realistic chance of accessing. That mainly means published material. Nothing was intentionally excluded.  More items will be added over time. As mentioned above, this list represents a work in progress, and is expected to change over time.  Feel free to make suggestions, to send in references that you think ought to go on the list, and other comments or suggestions.  Over time, the list will simply improve!  -- John W. Eshleman, Ed.D